A sanctuary city is a municipality that limits or denies its cooperation with the national government in Law enforcement immigration law.
Proponents of sanctuary cities cite motives such as reducing the fear of persons which illegally immigrated from deportation, separation of immigrant families, reporting crimes, using health and social services, and enrolling their children into a school.
Opponents of sanctuary cities argue that they undermine the rule of law by not cooperating with federal immigration authorities. They also highlight concerns about Public security, pointing to cases where a person involved in violent crimes was released instead of being handed over to proper authorities. Critics claim that sanctuary cities act as magnets for illegal immigration, attracting more people to enter unlawfully. They also argue that these cities place a strain on local resources, as persons which have illegally immigrated may access public services like healthcare, housing, and education.
Some studies on the relationship between sanctuary status and crime have found that sanctuary policies either have no effect on crime or that sanctuary cities have lower crime rates and stronger economies than comparable non-sanctuary cities. In 2016 The Washington Post reported that in the United States "decades of research actually shows that immigrants – whether legal or illegal – tend to have lower crime rates".
Sanctuary city policies substantially reduce deportations of illegal immigrants who do not have criminal records, but have no impact on those who have violent criminal records.
European cities have drawn inspiration from the sanctuary movement in American cities. However, the term "sanctuary city" in Europe generally refers to cities committed to supporting legal and , not illegal immigration.
United States
[[File:Map of Sanctuary Cities and Counties in the United States.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.6|
*Map is based on data published by ICE in a February 2017 report outlining jurisdictions that have declined ICE detainers.]]
In the United States, municipal policies include prohibiting police or city employees from questioning people about their immigration status and refusing requests by national immigration authorities to detain people beyond their release date, if they were jailed for breaking local law.
History
The movement that established sanctuary cities in the United States began in the early 1980s. The movement traces its roots to religious philosophy, as well as the histories of resistance movements to perceived state injustices.
The sanctuary city movement took place in the 1980s to challenge the US government's refusal to grant asylum to certain Central American refugees.
These asylum seekers were arriving from countries in Central America like
El Salvador and
Guatemala that were politically unstable. More than 75,000 Salvadoreans and 200,000 Guatemalans were killed in civil wars.
[Bracken, Amy (Dec. 29 2016). "Why You Need To Know About Guatemala's Civil War". Public Radio International.]
Faith-based groups in the US Southwest initially drove the movement of the 1980s, with eight churches publicly declaring to be sanctuaries in March 1982.[Bauder, Harald (2017-04-01). "Sanctuary Cities: Politics and Practice in International Perspective. International Migration. 55(2): 174–187. ISSN 1468-2435.] John Fife, a minister and movement leader, famously wrote in a letter to Attorney General William Smith: "the South-side United Presbyterian Church will publicly violate the Immigration and Nationality Act by allowing sanctuary in its church for those from Central America."[Cunningham, Hilary. God and Caesar at the Rio Grande: sanctuary and the politics of religion (Minneapolis, Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press, 1995).]
A milestone in the U.S. sanctuary city movement occurred in 1985 in San Francisco, which passed the largely symbolic “City of Refuge” resolution. A 1985 city ordinance prohibited the use of city funds and resources to assist federal immigration enforcement—the defining characteristic of a sanctuary city in the US.[Mancina, P. 2013 “The birth of a sanctuary-city: a history of governmental sanctuary in San Francisco”. In R. K. Lippert and S. Rehaag (Eds) Sanctuary Practices in International Perspectives: Migration, Citizenship and Social Movements. Abingdon, UK, Routledge: 205–218.] As of 2018, more than 560 cities, states and counties considered themselves sanctuaries.
Terminology
Several different terms and phrases are used to describe immigrants who entered U.S. illegally.
The term alien, primarily used between the 1970s and 2010s American news sources,[Emily Guskin, 'Illegal,' 'undocumented,' 'unauthorized': News media shift language on immigration", Pew Research Center (March 17, 2013).] "The U.S. Citizenship Act of 2021", which President Joe Biden proposed to Congress, would eliminate the word "alien" from federal immigration laws and replace it with "noncitizen".
Usage of the word "illegal" and phrases using the word (e.g., illegal alien, illegal immigrant, illegal worker and illegal migrant) has declined, accounting for 82% of language used in 1996, 75% in 2002, 60% in 2007, and 57% in 2013.
Several other phrases are used: undocumented immigrant (usage in news reports increased from 6% in 1996 to 14% in 2013); unauthorized immigrant (3% usage in 2013 and rarely seen before that time), and undocumented person or undocumented people (1% in 2007, increasing to 3% in 2013).
Media outlets' policies as to use of terms differ, and no consensus has yet emerged in the press.[Stephen Hiltner, Illegal, Undocumented, Unauthorized: The Terms of Immigration Reporting, New York Times (March 10, 2017).][Rui Kaneya, 'Illegal,' 'undocumented,' or something else? No clear consensus yet, Columbia Journalism Review (December 23, 2014).] In 2013, the Associated Press changed its AP Stylebook to provide that "Except in direct quotes essential to the story, use illegal only to refer to an action, not a person: illegal immigration, but not illegal immigrant. Acceptable variations include living in or entering a country illegally or without legal permission."[Andrew Beaujon & Taylor Miller Thomas, AP changes style on 'illegal immigrant', Poynter Institute (April 2, 2013).] Within several weeks, major U.S. newspapers such as Chicago Tribune, the Los Angeles Times, and USA Today adopted similar guidance.[Derek Hawkins, The long struggle over what to call 'undocumented immigrants' or, as Trump said in his order, 'illegal aliens', Washington Post (February 9, 2017).]
are a related idea.[
]
Electoral politics
The issue entered presidential politics in the race for the 2008 Republican Party presidential nomination.
Colorado Congressman Tom Tancredo ran on an anti-illegal immigration platform and specifically attacked sanctuary cities. Former Massachusetts Governor Mitt Romney accused former New York City Mayor Rudy Giuliani of running it as a sanctuary city.
In July 2015, 32-year-old Kathryn Steinle was fatally shot by an illegal immigrant who had previously been deported 5 times. The shooting took place in San Francisco, a sanctuary city, sparking national debate over immigration and sanctuary city policies. Former Secretary of State and presidential candidate Hillary Clinton told CNN that "The city made a mistake, not to deport someone that the federal government strongly felt should be deported. I have absolutely no support for a city that ignores the strong evidence that should be acted on."
Trump administration
On March 6, 2018, the U.S. Department of Justice sued the state of California, the Governor
Jerry Brown, and the state's attorney general,
Xavier Becerra, over three recently-passed state laws, saying the laws made it impossible for federal immigration officials to do their jobs and deport criminals who were born outside the United States. The Justice Department called the laws unconstitutional and asked a judge to block them. The lawsuit said the state laws “reflect a deliberate effort by California to obstruct the United States’ enforcement of federal immigration law.”
[ "Trump Administration Sues California Over Immigration Laws" New York Times, March 6, 2018. Retrieved March 6, 2018.]
The Trump administration previously released a list of immigration principles to Congress. The list included funding a wall along the U.S.-Mexico border, a crackdown on the influx of Central American minors, and curbs on federal grants to sanctuary cities.
States and cities have shown varying responses to the executive order. Thirty-three states introduced or enacted legislation requiring local law enforcement to cooperate with ICE officers and requests to hold non-citizen inmates for deportation. Other states and cities have responded by not cooperating with federal immigration efforts or by showcasing welcoming policies towards immigrants.
On March 27, 2018, the all-Republican Board of Supervisors in Orange County, California voted to join the Justice Department's lawsuit against the state.
Local officials who oppose the president's policies say that complying with federal immigration officers will ruin the trust established between law enforcement and immigrant communities. Supporters of the president's policies say that protection of immigrants from enforcement makes communities less safe and undermines the rule of law.
The Department of Justice publishes a list of jurisdictions with policies, laws or regulations that obstruct enforcement of federal immigration laws determined by a review of laws, ordinances, and executive directives.
Federal legislation
The Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996 addressed the relationship between the federal and local governments. Minor crimes, such as shoplifting, became grounds for possible deportation.
The legislation outlawed cities' bans against municipal workers reporting a person's immigration status to federal authorities.
Nothing in the law forces states or local governments to help the federal government with immigration enforcement.
Section 287(g) makes it possible for state and local law enforcement personnel to enter into agreements with the federal government to be trained in immigration enforcement and, subsequent to such training, to enforce immigration law. However, it provides no general power for immigration enforcement by state and local authorities.[IIRIRA 287(g)] This provision was implemented by local and state authorities in five states, California, Arizona, Alabama, Florida and North Carolina by the end of 2006.[Katie Zezima, Massachusetts Set for Its Officers to Enforce Immigration Law. The New York Times, December 13, 2006.]
On June 16, 2007, the United States House of Representatives passed an amendment to a United States Department of Homeland Security spending bill that would withhold federal emergency services funds from sanctuary cities. Congressman Tom Tancredo (R-Colo.) was the sponsor of this amendment. Fifty Democrats joined Republicans to support the amendment. The amendment would have to pass the United States Senate to become effective.
In 2007, Republican representatives introduced legislation targeting sanctuary cities. Reps. Brian Bilbray, R-Calif., Ginny Brown-Waite, R-Fla., Thelma Drake, R-Va., Jeff Miller, R-Fla., and Tom Tancredo introduced the bill. The legislation would make illegal immigration status a felony, instead of a civil offense. Also, the bill targets sanctuary cities by withholding up to 50 percent of Department of Homeland Security funds from the cities.
On September 5, 2007, Department of Homeland Security Secretary Michael Chertoff told a House committee that he certainly wouldn't tolerate interference by sanctuary cities that would block his "Basic Pilot Program" that requires employers to validate the legal status of their workers. "We're exploring our legal options. I intend to take as vigorous legal action as the law allows to prevent that from happening, prevent that kind of interference."
On January 25, 2017, President Donald Trump signed Executive Order 13768 directing the Secretary of Homeland Security and Attorney General to defund sanctuary jurisdictions that refuse to comply with federal immigration law.[,] He also ordered the Department of Homeland Security to begin issuing weekly public reports that include "a comprehensive list of criminal actions committed by aliens and any jurisdiction that ignored or otherwise failed to honor any detainers with respect to such aliens."
Ilya Somin, Professor of Law at George Mason University, has argued that Trump's withholding of federal funding would be unconstitutional: "Trump and future presidents could use the to seriously undermine constitutional federalism by forcing dissenting cities and states to obey presidential dictates, even without authorization from Congress. The circumvention of Congress makes the order a threat to separation of powers, as well."
On April 25, 2017, U.S. District Judge William Orrick issued a nationwide preliminary injunction halting this executive order.
In December 2018 the Ninth U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals struck down a federal law that criminalized encouraging people to enter or live in the U.S. illegally. The court said the law was too broad in restricting the basic right of free speech under the
/ref>[United States v. Sineneng-Smith (United States Court of Appeals for the 9th Circuit December 4, 2018) (http://cdn.ca9.uscourts.gov/datastore/opinions/2018/12/04/15-10614.pdf, Dist. file).
][Title 8 Aliens and Nationality, U.S. Code § 1324. Bringing in and harboring certain aliens (1907).]
Jurisdiction
Whether or not the U.S. Constitution affords local governments with jurisdiction to detain illegal immigrants for deportation, is a longstanding dispute, vigorously debated since the Alien Act of 1798.
Opponents of local level policing often cite to the Naturalization Clause and the Migration clause in the Constitution as textual confirmation of federal power. Because the Supremacy Clause is generally interpreted to mean that federal law takes priority over state law, the U.S. Supreme Court in the majority of cases has ruled in favor of the federal government. Certain states have been affected by illegal immigration more than others and have attempted to pass legislation that limits access by illegal immigrants to public benefits. A notable case was Arizona's SB 1070 law, which was passed in 2010 and struck down in 2012 by the Supreme Court as unconstitutional.
States like Arizona, Texas and Nevada justify the aggressive actions they have taken to be the result of insufficient efforts by the federal government to address issues, like the use of schools and hospitals by illegal immigrants, and changes to the cultural landscape—impacts that are most visible on a local level.
Effects
Crime
Studies show that US sanctuary cities either have no impact on crime or that they lower the crime rate.
According to an article done by Gale Opposing Viewpoints, a 2015 study by the American Immigration Council "determined that both documented and undocumented immigrants are less likely to engage in criminal behavior than native-born Americans," and that there was a decrease in "violent crime and serious property crime in cities" with growing illegal immigrant populations.
A 2017 study in the journal Urban Affairs Review found that sanctuary policy itself has no statistically meaningful effect on crime.
According to a study by Tom K. Wong, associate professor of political science at the University of California, San Diego, published by the Center for American Progress, a progressive think tank: "Crime is statistically significantly lower in sanctuary counties compared to non-sanctuary counties. Moreover, economies are stronger in sanctuary counties – from higher median household income, less poverty, and less reliance on public assistance, to higher labor force participation, higher employment-to-population ratios, and lower unemployment."
A 2020 study found that California Senate Bill 54 (2017), a sanctuary city legislation, had no significant impact on violent and property crime rates in California.
A 2021 US study found that Latinos were more likely to report crime victimization to law enforcement after sanctuary policies were adopted in their areas of residence.
Economy
Advocates of local enforcement of immigration laws argue that more regulatory local immigration policies would cause immigrants to flee those cities and possibly the United States altogether,
while opponents argue that regulatory policies on immigrants wouldn't affect their presence because immigrants looking for work will relocate towards economic opportunity despite challenges living there.
Illegal immigrants tend to be attracted to states with more economic opportunity and individual freedom.
Because there is no reliable data that asks for immigration status, there is no way to tell empirically if regulatory policies do have an effect on immigrant presence. A study comparing restrictive counties with nonrestrictive counties found that local jurisdictions that enacted regulatory immigration policies experienced a 1–2% negative effect in employment.
Health and well-being
A preliminary study's results imply that the number of sanctuary cities in the U.S. positively affects well-being in the illegal immigrant population.
Concerning health, a study in North Carolina found that after implementation of section 287(g), prenatal Hispanic/Latina mothers were more likely than non-Hispanic/Latina mothers to have late or inadequate prenatal care. The study's interviews indicated that Hispanics/Latinos in the section 287(g) counties had distrust in health services among other services and was afraid about going to the doctor.
Laws and policies by state and city
Alabama
Alabama has banned sanctuary cities.
The state law (Alabama HB 56) was enacted in 2011, calling for proactive immigration enforcement; however, many provisions are either blocked by the federal courts or subject to ongoing lawsuits.
-
In January 2017, William A. Bell, the mayor of Birmingham, declared the city a "welcoming city" and said that the police would not be "an enforcement arm of the federal government" with respect to federal immigration law. He stated that the city would not require proof of citizenship for granting business licenses. The Birmingham City Council passed a resolution supporting Birmingham being a "sanctuary city".
Arizona
Arizona has banned sanctuary cities.
Following the passage of Arizona SB 1070, few if any cities in Arizona are sanctuary cities. A provision of SB 1070 requires local authorities to "contact federal immigration authorities if they develop reasonable suspicion that a person they've detained or arrested is in the country illegally."
[Tim Steller, Tucson a 'sanctuary city'? Not so fast, Arizona Daily Star (February 23, 2016).]
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The Center for Immigration Studies, an anti-immigration group, labels only one city in the state, South Tucson, a "sanctuary city"; the label is because South Tucson does not honor ICE detainers "unless ICE pays for cost of detention".
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In 2019, Tucson held a citywide vote on Proposition 205, which would have declared it a sanctuary city. The proposition failed 70–30. Amongst others, Democratic outgoing Mayor Jonathan Rothschild and mayoral candidates Steve Farley, Randi Dorman and eventual winner Regina Romero, alongside city councilmembers and US Senate candidate Mark Kelly endorsed a "No" vote.
Arkansas
Arkansas has banned sanctuary cities.
California
In October 2017, Governor
Jerry Brown signed a bill, SB 54, that makes California a "sanctuary state". It prohibits local and state agencies from cooperating with ICE regarding illegal immigrants who have committed misdemeanors.
[ "California Governor Signs 'Sanctuary State' Bill" NPR. Retrieved October 5, 2017; "In a Trump-defying move, California's Senate passes sanctuary state bill" CNN.com. Retrieved July 2, 2017] According to the National Immigration Law Center in 2016, about a dozen California cities have some formal sanctuary policy, and none of the 58 California counties "complies with detainer requests by U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement."
[Cindy Carcamo, Kate Mather & Dakota Smith, Trump's crackdown on illegal immigration leaves a lot unanswered for sanctuary cities like L.A., Los Angeles Times (November 15, 2016).]
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Berkeley became the first city in the United States to pass a sanctuary resolution in November 1971.
[ Is The Original Sanctuary City" East Bay Express, February 14, 2017. Retrieved March 23, 2017] Additional local governments in certain cities in the United States began designating themselves as sanctuary cities during the 1980s.
-
Coachella – 95% Latino, 2nd highest percentage Latino city in Southern California, the city adopted the sanctuary policy in 2015.
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Huntington Beach obtained a ruling from the state Supreme Court that the protections in California for immigrants who are in the country illegally do not apply to the 121 charter cities. The Orange County city is the first to successfully challenge SB 54.
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Los Angeles – In 1979, the Los Angeles City Council adopted Special Order 40, barring LAPD officers from initiating contact with a person solely to determine their immigration status.
[Kate Mather & Cindy Chang, LAPD will not help deport immigrants under Trump, chief says, Los Angeles Times (November 14, 2016).] However, the city frequently cooperates with federal immigration authorities.
-
San Francisco "declared itself a sanctuary city in 1989, and city officials strengthened the stance in 2013 with its 'Due Process for All' ordinance. The law declared local authorities could not hold immigrants for immigration officials if they had no violent felonies on their records and did not currently face charges."
[
]
The 2015 shooting of Kathryn Steinle provoked debate about San Francisco's "sanctuary city" policy.
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Seaside – In March 2017, Seaside became Monterey County first sanctuary city.
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Williams – 75% Latino, largest percentage Latino town in Northern California, adopted the policy in 2015.
Colorado
In May 2019, Governor
Jared Polis signed House Bill 1124 immediately prohibiting law enforcement officials in Colorado from holding illegal immigrants solely on the basis of a request from U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement.
-
Boulder became a sanctuary city in 2017.
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Denver does not identify as a sanctuary city. The Denver Post reports: "The city doesn't have an ordinance staking out a claim or barring information-sharing with federal officials about a person's immigration status, unlike some cities. But it is among cities that don't enforce immigration laws or honor federal 'detainer' requests to hold immigrants with suspect legal status in jail past their release dates.
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Estes Park police chief Wes Kufeld stated that, "As far as day-to-day policing, people are not required to provide proof of immigration status, and our officers are not required by ICE to check immigration status, nor to conduct sweeps for undocumented individuals. So, we don’t do these things." He added that town police do assist ICE in the arrest and detainment of any illegal immigrant suspected of a felony.
[ "Understanding Immigration Enforcement And The Role Of The Estes Park Police". Directed from: Town of Estes Park news, April 21, 2017. Retrieved July 19, 2017.]
Connecticut
In 2013, Connecticut passed a law that gives local law enforcement officers discretion to carry out immigration detainer requests, though only for suspected felons.
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Hartford passed an ordinance providing services to all residents regardless of their immigration in 2008. The ordinance prohibits police from detaining individuals based solely on their immigration status, or inquiring as to their immigration status. In 2016, the ordinance was amended to declare that Hartford is a "Sanctuary City", although the term itself does not have an established legal meaning.
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In February 2017, Middletown, CT declared itself a sanctuary city. This was in direct response to President Trump's executive order. Middletown's mayor, Daniel T Drew, said: “We don't just take orders from the President of the United States”
Florida
Florida has banned sanctuary cities.
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In January 2017 Miami-Dade County rescinded a policy of insisting the U.S. government pay for detention of persons on a federal list. Republican Mayor Carlos Gimenez ordered jails to "fully cooperate" with Presidential immigration policy. He said he did not want to risk losing a larger amount of federal financial aid for not complying. The mayor said Miami-Dade County has never considered itself to be a sanctuary city.
[Ray Sanchez. "Florida's largest county to comply with Trump's sanctuary crackdown", CNN, 27 January 2017.]
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St. Petersburg Democratic Mayor Rick Kriseman said residents from all backgrounds implored him to declare a sanctuary city. In February 2017 he blogged that, "I have no hesitation in declaring St. Petersburg a sanctuary from harmful federal immigration laws. We will not expend resources to help enforce such laws, nor will our police officers stop, question or arrest an individual solely on the basis that they may have unlawfully entered the United States." He said the county sheriff's office has ultimate responsibility for notifying federal officials about people illegally in the city. The mayor criticized President Trump for "demonization of Muslims."
[ "Mayor declares St. Petersburg a sanctuary city" Bay News 9, February 04, 2017. Retrieved February 4, 2017.][
]
"Shelter in the Sunshine City" Rick Kriseman blog. Retrieved February 4, 2017.
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In June 2019, Florida Governor Ron DeSantis signed a bill that bans sanctuary cities. The bill prohibits local governments from enacting "sanctuary" policies that protect illegal immigrants from deportation and all law enforcement agencies in Florida will have to cooperate with federal immigration authorities.
Georgia
Georgia banned "sanctuary cities" in 2010, and in 2016 went further by requiring local governments, in order to obtain state funding, to certify that they cooperate with federal immigration officials.
[Jeremy Redmon, Are there Sanctuary Cities in Georgia?, Atlanta Journal-Constitution (February 2, 2017).]
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The mayor of Atlanta, Georgia in January 2017 declared the city was a “welcoming city” and “will remain open and welcoming to all”. This statement was in response to President's Trump's executive orders related to “public safety agencies and the communities they serve”. Nonetheless, Atlanta does not consider itself to be a “sanctuary city”.
Illinois
In August 2017, Illinois Governor
Bruce Rauner signed a bill into law that prohibited state and local police from arresting anyone solely due to their immigration status or due to federal detainers.
Some fellow Republicans criticized Rauner for his action, claiming the bill made Illinois a sanctuary state. The Illinois associations for Sheriffs and Police Chiefs stated that the bill does not prevent cooperation with the federal government or give sanctuary for illegal immigrants. Both organizations support the bill.
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Chicago Mayor Harold Washington issued an executive order in 1985 prohibiting city employees from enforcing federal immigration laws.
[Chicago code Welcoming City Ordinance Chapter 2-173, chicagocode.org (January 25, 2017).][Welcoming City Ordinance Chapter 2-173 Welcoming City Ordinance, City of Chicago (January 25, 2017).] The ordinance protects residents' rights to access city services regardless of immigration status and states that Chicago police cannot arrest individuals on the basis of immigration status alone.[City of Chicago Sanctuary City Supportive Resources , City of Chicago | Office of New Americans (January 25, 2017).] The status was reaffirmed in 2016.[Mayor's Press Office, Mayor Emanuel Reiterates Chicago's Status as Sanctuary City , City of Chicago (November 13, 2016).][Richard Gonzales, Mayor Rahm Emanuel: 'Chicago Always Will Be A Sanctuary City' NPR (November 14, 2016).]
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Urbana, Illinois
[Jeff Bossert, Sanctuary City Measure Passes Urbana Council On 5–1 Vote WILL Illinois public media news (December 20, 2016).]
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Evanston, Illinois
Indiana
Indiana has banned sanctuary cities since 2011.
Iowa
Iowa has banned sanctuary cities.
Kansas
Kansas has banned sanctuary cities.
Louisiana
-
In New Orleans
[Robert McClendon, 'Sanctuary city' policy puts an end to NOPD's immigration enforcement, NOLA.com | The Times-Picayune (March 01, 2016).] the New Orleans Police Department began a new policy to "no longer cooperate with federal immigration enforcement" beginning in February 2016.
Maine
A 2004 executive order prohibited state officials from inquiring about immigration statuses of individuals seeking public assistance. In 2011, the incoming Maine governor
Paul LePage rescinded this, stating “it is the intent of this administration to promote rather than hinder the enforcement of federal immigration law."
-
In 2015, Governor LePage accused Portland of being a sanctuary city based on the fact that “city employees are prohibited from asking about the immigration status of people seeking city services unless compelled by a court or law,"
[ Despite LePage's remark, the 'sanctuary city' label doesn’t fit Portland, officials say, Randy Billings, September 15, 2015, Portland Press Herald] but Portland city officials did not accept that characterization.[
]
Maryland
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In 2008, Baltimore and Takoma Park are sometimes identified as sanctuary cities.
[Laura Schwartzman, Legislation would ban Takoma Park sanctuary policies. , Capital News Service (March 19, 2008).] However, "most local governments in Maryland – including Baltimore – still share information with the federal government."[John Fritze, House passes 'sanctuary city' bill, reigniting immigration debate, Baltimore Sun (July 23, 2016).] In 2016, Baltimore Mayor Stephanie Rawlings-Blake said that she did not consider Baltimore to be a "sanctuary city."[Yvonne Wenger, Mayor: Baltimore is a 'welcoming city' for immigrants and refugees , Baltimore Sun (November 16, 2016).]
Massachusetts
Massachusetts has a pro-sanctuary city law.
The Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court ruled in July 2017 that a person cannot be held solely due to an ICE detainer.
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Boston has an ordinance, enacted in 2014, that bars the Boston Police Department "from detaining anyone based on their immigration status unless they have a criminal warrant."
[Kyle Scott Clauss, Boston Already Has Some Sanctuary City Protections: Thanks to the 2014 Trust Act, police can’t detain someone based on their immigration status. , Boston Magazine (November 15, 2016).] Cambridge, Chelsea, Somerville, Orleans, Northampton, and Springfield have similar legislation.
Michigan
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Detroit and Ann Arbor are sometimes referred to as "sanctuary cities" because they "have anti-profiling ordinances that generally prohibit local police from asking about the immigration status of people who are not suspected of any crime."
[Jonathan Oosting, Push to ban 'sanctuary cities' in Michigan faces criticism from immigrant advocates, MLive (September 30, 2015).] Unlike San Francisco's ordinance, the Detroit and Ann Arbor policies do not bar local authorities from cooperating and assisting ICE and Customs and Border Protection, and both cities frequently do so.
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Kalamazoo re-affirmed its status as a welcoming city in 2017. Vice Mayor Don Cooney stated, "We care about you. We will protect you. We are with you."
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Lansing voted to become a sanctuary city in April 2017. It reversed the decision a week later due to public and business opposition. An order by mayor Virg Bernero still prohibits Lansing police officers from asking residents about their immigration status.
[Lauren Gibbons, , MLive (April 12, 2017).]
Minnesota
-
Minneapolis has an ordinance, adopted in 2003,
[Ibrahim Hirsi, What the conflict over 'sanctuary cities'could mean for the Twin Cities, Minn Post (November 23, 2016).] that directs local law enforcement officers "not to 'take any law enforcement action' for the sole purpose of finding illegal immigrants, or ask an individual about his or her immigration status."[Mike Mullen, Betsy Hodges: Minneapolis will remain a 'sanctuary city,' despite Trump threats, City Pages (November 14, 2016).] The Minneapolis ordinance does not bar cooperation with federal authorities: "The city works cooperatively with the Homeland Security, as it does with all state and federal agencies, but the city does not operate its programs for the purpose of enforcing federal immigration laws. The Homeland Security has the legal authority to enforce immigration laws in the United States, in Minnesota and in the city."
Mississippi
Mississippi has banned sanctuary cities.
Missouri
Missouri has banned sanctuary cities.
Montana
In April 2021, Governor
Greg Gianforte signed a bill that bans
Sanctuary cities in Montana.
Montana became the 13th state to ban sanctuary cities.
Nevada
New Jersey
In 2018, Attorney General
Gurbir Grewal issued the 'Immigrant Trust Directive', which effectively made New Jersey a sanctuary state.
Among the municipalities which are considered sanctuary cities are Asbury Park, Camden, East Orange, Hoboken, Jersey City, Linden, New Brunswick, Newark, North Bergen, Plainfield, Trenton and Union City.
Those with specific executive orders made by mayors or resolution by municipal councils are:
-
Jersey City
[Terrence T. McDonald, The Jersey Journal, November 23, 2016, (via) nj.com, Jersey City will protect immigrants from 'hate and prejudice,' councilman says, retrieved November 24, 2016.][Terrence T. McDonald, The Jersey Journal, NJ.com, February 2, 2017, Fulop says he will sign order making Jersey City a true 'sanctuary city', retrieved February 4, 2017.]
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Maplewood
[Eric Kiefer, NJ Patch, January 20, 2017, (via) patch.com, Maplewood 1st N.J. Town To Offer Immigrants ‘Sanctuary’ In 2017, retrieved January 20, 2017.]
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Newark
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East Orange
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Prospect Park
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Union City
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Highland Park (see:Reformed Church of Highland Park)
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Hoboken
New Mexico
All county jails are prohibited from honoring ICE detainers, unless they have an arrest warrant signed by a judge.
New York
New York State has a pro-sanctuary city law.
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Albany – Mayor Kathy Sheehan stated that the city complies with federal law and cooperates with ICE, but she asserted that comments by national government officials show a failure "to understand what is happening in our cities and why a city like Albany would choose to label itself as a sanctuary city."
[ "The Justice Department is stepping up pressure on ‘sanctuary cities.’ Here’s how mayors are responding" PBS Newshour, January 24, 2018. Retrieved January 24, 2018.]
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Ithaca
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New York City
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Newburgh declared itself a sanctuary city in March 2017.
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Rochester
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Syracuse
North Carolina
North Carolina has banned sanctuary cities.
The state restricts any city or municipality from refusing to cooperate with federal immigration and customs enforcement officials.
There are therefore no official sanctuary cities in the state. A bill, initially under consideration as of March 2017, is entitled Citizens Protection Act of 2017 or HB 63. Under the new provisions, the state would be able to deny bail to illegal immigrants for whom Immigration and Customs Enforcements (ICE) has issued a detainer; allow the state to withhold tax revenues from cities who are not in compliance with the statewide immigration regulations; and encourage tipsters to identify municipalities which violate these laws.
A similar version of HB 63 was introduced in February 2023 during the 2023-2024 session.
North Dakota
In 2023, the state enacted a law
that bans the establishment of sanctuary areas. The measure forbids local governments and higher education institutions from setting policies that inhibit authorities from reporting illegal immigrants to federal officials, or that allow illegal immigrants the legal right to stay in a jurisdiction.
Ohio
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Cleveland
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Cincinnati's mayor declared the city a sanctuary city in January 2017, in response to a federal executive order limiting immigration issued three days earlier.
-
As of 2019, Ohio,
Oregon
State law passed in 1987: "Oregon Revised Statute 181.850, which prohibits law enforcement officers at the state, county or municipal level from enforcing federal immigration laws that target people based on their race or ethnic origin, when those individuals are not suspected of any criminal activities."
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Beaverton city council passed a resolution in January 2017 stating, in part, "The City of Beaverton is committed to living its values as a welcoming city for all individuals ...regardless of a person's ... immigration status" and that they would abide by Oregon state law of not enforcing federal immigration laws.
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Corvallis
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Portland
Pennsylvania
There are 17 sanctuary jurisdictions in the state of
Pennsylvania.
Sanctuary jurisdictions exist in Bradford County, Bucks County, Delaware County, Erie County, Franklin County, Lebanon County, Lehigh County, Lycoming County, Montgomery County, Montour County, Perry County, Philadelphia County, Pike County, and Westmoreland County.
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Philadelphia mayor Jim Kenney said in November 2016 that federal immigration policies lead to more crime, and that crime rates declined the year he reinstated a sanctuary city policy.
Rhode Island
In 2014, Governor
Lincoln Chafee put in place a new policy instructing the Department of Corrections to stop honoring immigration detainers without a warrant.
South Carolina
South Carolina has banned sanctuary cities.
Tennessee
Tennessee state law bars "local governments or officials from making policies that stop local entities from complying with federal immigration law."
[Ariana Maia Sawyer, Lawmaker introduces Tennessee 'sanctuary city' ban, USA Today Network (February 8, 2017).] In 2017, legislation proposed in the Tennessee General Assembly would go further, withholding funding from local governments deemed insufficiently cooperative with the federal government.
On January 29, 2025, a majority of legislators in the
Tennessee Senate voted to adopt SB6002, a bill which "creates criminal penalties for officials who adopt sanctuary policies and subsequently requires their removal from office upon conviction".
The act charges a Class E felony, resulting in a potential prison sentence of between one to six years,
[ Forumlaw Tenn. Code Ann. § 40-35-112. Link.] upon "each official who, in their capacity as a member of the governing body of a local government, votes in the affirmative to adopt a sanctuary policy".
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In Nashville, mayor David Briley, signed an executive order in September 2019 directing city attorneys to investigate grounds for challenging Tennessee's anti-sanctuary-city law.
Texas
In
Texas no city has formally declared "sanctuary" status. A few do not fully cooperate with federal immigration authorities and have drawn a negative response from the legislature.
[Doyin Oyeniyi, Does Texas Have Any Sanctuary Cities?, Texas Monthly (February 11, 2016).] Bills seeking to deprive state funding from police departments and municipalities that do not cooperate with federal authorities were introduced into the Texas Legislature several times.
In February 2017, Texas Governor
Greg Abbott blocked funding to Travis County, Texas due to its recently implemented
de facto sanctuary city policy.
In May 2017, Abbott signed Texas Senate Bill 4 into law, effectively banning sanctuary cities by charging county or city officials who refuse to work with federal officials, and by allowing police officers to check the immigration status of those they detain if they choose.
Vermont
In 2017, Vermont passed a law granting the Governor the sole authority to commit state or local law enforcement to enforce federal immigration law.
Governor
Phil Scott said, "I want to be very clear this law has been carefully crafted through a consensus-building process to confirm Vermont remains compliant with federal law, that we would not be establishing a sanctuary state."
Previously, a 2014 law directed local law enforcement to disregard immigration detainers, but compliance was optional.
Washington
Washington enacted a measure in June 2019 in favor of sanctuary cities, similar to California and Oregon laws which are among the strongest statewide mandates in the nation.
Washington, D.C.
Washington, D.C. is a sanctuary city.
Canada
Central Canada
Toronto was the first city in
Canada to declare itself a sanctuary city, with the Toronto City Council voting 37–3 in February 2013, to adopt a policy allowing undocumented immigrants to access city services.
Hamilton, Ontario declared itself a sanctuary city in February 2014 after the Hamilton City Council voted unanimously to allow undocumented immigrants to access city-funded services such as shelters, housing and food banks.
In response to US President Donald Trump's Executive Order 13769, the city council of London, Ontario voted unanimously to declare London a sanctuary city in January 2017
Western Canada
While
Vancouver is not a sanctuary city, it adopted an "Access to City Services without Fear" policy for residents that are undocumented or have an uncertain immigration status in April 2016.
The policy does not apply to municipal services operated by individual boards, including services provided by the Vancouver Police Department, Vancouver Public Library, or Vancouver Park Board.
, the cities of Calgary, Regina, Saskatoon, and Winnipeg are considering motions to declare themselves sanctuary cities.
In September 2018, Edmonton adopted "Access Without Fear" policy for undocumented and vulnerable residents.
United Kingdom
In the
United Kingdom, sanctuary cities provide services – such as housing, education, and cultural integration – to
asylum seekers (i.e. persons fleeing one country and seeking protection in another).
The movement began in
Sheffield in 2005. It was motivated by a national policy adopted in 1999 to disperse asylum seekers to different towns and cities in the UK.
Sheffield
In 2009, the city council of Sheffield drew up a manifesto outlining key areas of concern and 100 supporting organizations signed on.
A city's status as a place of sanctuary is not necessarily a formal governmental designation. The organization City of Sanctuary encourages local grassroots groups throughout the UK and Ireland to build a culture of hospitality towards asylum seekers.
Glasgow
Glasgow is a noted sanctuary city in
Scotland. In 2000 the city council accepted their first asylum seekers relocated by the
Home Office. The Home Office provided funding to support asylum seekers but would also forcibly deport them ("removal seizures") if it was determined they could not stay in the UK. As of 2010 Glasgow had accepted 22,000 asylum seekers from 75 different nations. In 2007, local residents upset by the human impact of removal seizures, organized watches to warn asylum seekers when Home Office vans were in the neighborhood. They also organized protests and vigils which led to the ending of the removal seizures.
Wales
In 2019, the
Welsh Government announced its aim for Wales to become the world’s first "Nation of Sanctuary".
This declaration followed extensive consultations involving local authorities, refugee support organisations, and people with lived experience of seeking asylum. The process culminated in the publication of the *Nation of Sanctuary – Refugee and Asylum Seeker Plan*,
which sets out measures to improve access to housing, employment, healthcare, and education for refugees and asylum seekers. The initiative reflects both a symbolic and practical commitment to making Wales a welcoming place for those fleeing persecution, despite immigration policy being reserved to the UK Government.
The plan has drawn criticism from some members of the Welsh Conservatives, including former party leader Andrew RT Davies, who described the Nation of Sanctuary as undermining efforts to stop illegal migration and argued that it contributes to housing pressures in areas such as the Vale of Glamorgan.
Iran
National immigration organization has a program to build "guest" cities.
Biblical sanctuary cities
Sanctuary cities in the Old Testament and narrowly applied only to those guilty of unintentional manslaughter as protection against the avenger, perhaps a close relative. Protection wasn’t permanent—the manslayer remained until the death of the high priest, then could return home.
[Numbers 35:25–28, ESV] This system balanced mercy and justice, ensuring the killer was shielded from revenge but not from accountability.
In contrast, modern sanctuary cities extend protection to undocumented immigrants, limiting local cooperation with immigration enforcement. Their focus is social justice and community trust, not specific crimes like manslaughter. Though they borrow the biblical term, the scope and intent are much broader.
The only biblical example involving a sanctuary city involved abuses of the system. Joab's brother was killed in battle by Abner. Joab retaliated and murdered Abner in Hebron, a sanctuary city, though Abner was there for political talks, not refuge.[2 Samuel 3:26–27, ESV] Later, Joab himself appealing for sanctuary grabbed the altar horns seeking asylum, but Solomon had him executed for premeditated murder.[1 Kings 2:28–34, ESV] As Matthew Henry noted, “They that expect to find mercy with God must show mercy to their brethren”.[Matthew Henry, Commentary on the Whole Bible, Hendrickson Publishers, 1991, 1 Kings 2]
Some theologians interpret these cities and the death of the high priest as a foreshadowing of Christ providing refuge in His death. Matthew Henry wrote that the high priest’s death prefigured Christ’s sacrifice from the wrath due sin,[Matthew Henry, Commentary on the Whole Bible, Hendrickson Publishers, 1991, p. 759] and Charles Spurgeon called Christ "the true city of refuge".[Charles Spurgeon, Spurgeon's Sermons on Old Testament Men, Kregel Publications, 1993, p. 35] The New Testament echoes this in Hebrews 9:11–12.
See also
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Border barrier
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Closed city
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Conflict of laws
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Justice delayed is justice denied
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List of cities with defensive walls
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Might makes right
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Operation Safeguard
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Perverting the course of justice
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Possession is nine-tenths of the law
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Sanctuary campus
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Second Amendment sanctuary
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US specific articles
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Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions
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Rapid response team
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Safe-haven law
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Sanctuary movement
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Secure Communities
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Separation barrier
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Squatting
Further reading
